In addition, given the interdependencies within and across systems of infrastructure, unmitigated emergencies are likely to have a considerable and unexpected impact on institutions and economies. The potential for rapid spread of consequences can render a comprehensive understanding of such emergencies beyond the grasp of a competent authority.
As such, there are a number of evolutionary pressures on Australian fire and rescue services that need to be addressed. Three such issues are covered here. Political conditions The first factor relates to political conditions at the national level.
Interestingly, the terms of reference for this review have not been made public — probably for reasons linked to the requirements of national security. The new government has also confirmed that, if established, the position of national security advisor will not be a ministerial appointment. Some pundits suggest that it would most likely be a statutory role. Given that many security challenges now transcend traditional mindsets and combine domestic and international issues and concerns, the institution behind the national security advisor would need to offer different types of advice from that current available from agencies such as the departments of defence or foreign affairs.
It could also operate to bridge the gaps in coverage that existing sources of advice might miss. Such coverage would also logically include emergency management and coordination issues nationally, especially as they relate to resilience in the face of asymmetric threat. National Emergency Protocol The second development relevant to fire and rescue service activity is the recent decision by the Council of Australian Governments to develop a National Emergency Protocol NEP that will describe the communication arrangements across the three levels of governance in Australia: Prime Minister, Premiers and Chief Ministers state level , and local governments.
The ser- vice provider is expected to be actively involved and share feelings with customers. A boundary open exchange is asso- ciated with customers' beliefs that the service provider is in- terested in them as persons. The service encounter has a feeling of a relationship rather than merely a transaction see Siehl, Bowen, and Pearson , p. In this way, it tran- scends commercial transaction boundaries. By contrast, boundary closed transactions impose transaction-specific boundaries around the service relationship, such that the ser- vice provider may be expected to perform in a certain pre- scripted way in the interests of service delivery Mohr and Bitner but not necessarily to exhibit friendship.
Extended encounters are likely to become boundary open for a variety of reasons. In American contexts, extend- ed interpersonal encounters elicit interpersonal exchange and displays of positive and esteem-enhancing emotions.
During an extended service encounter, there is more time for customer and employee display of these emotions Nisbett and Ross ; Sutton and Rafaeli Relatedly, ex- tended interpersonal encounters often provoke self-revela- tion, which is the key to feelings of intimacy McCroskey, Richhmond, and Stewart Thus, we expect that service provider communication of responsiveness, empathy, and assurance is relatively more important to customers' satis- faction in extended encounters than in brief ones.
Extended encounters are likely to develop into boundary open transactions. Extended encounters are likely to require service providers to expend significant emotional labor. Extended encounters create significant opportunities for service providers to experience emotional disso- nance. Service provider self-identity and role congruence is very important to the success of extended encoun- ters.
Significant opportunities for service script interference emerge during extended encounters. Script interference can impede mutual understanding and hence service satisfaction. When scripts are noncongruent, service providers must orchestrate mutual understanding to manage the interaction and ensure service satisfaction.
Service satisfaction is highly dependent on service provider performance. Affect C4. Affective content contributes to the development of boundary open relationships between service providers and customers. Affective content requires sustained emotional labor like- ly to lead to emotional dissonance, role stress, and role conflict.
In delivering affective services content, service providers interpret and explain events to crystallize customer ex- pectations and provide evidence that expectations are being met. Proxemics C7. Close proxemics motivate self-revelation, and interac- tions are likely to develop into boundary open transac- tions. Close proxemics postively affect the overall evaluation of the service encounter.
Hence, ex- tended encounters, albeit commercially motivated, are like- ly to become boundary open Mills and Morris ; Siehl, Bowen, and Pearson ; Trice and Beyer Second, extended encounters are likely to require ser- vice providers to expend significant emotional labor. Emo- tional labor is defined as the management of feelings and the expenditure of imagistic-emotional energy to produce an observable emotional state in others Hochschild The display of emotions and self-revelation expected in an ex- tended service encounter suggest that emotional labor be- comes an important aspect of the service provider's performance.
This characteristic has two associated consequences. First, extended encounters create significant opportunities for service providers to experience emotional dissonance, that is, a disparity between inner feelings and prescribed emotions. In temporally extended commercial encounters, the individual service provider and the customer must sus- tain role performances over a long period of time. Hence, ex- tended role performance increases the likelihood that ser- vice providers will experience and express emotional disso- nance.
Moreover, sustained performance reduces opportuni- ties for expressing emotional dissonance in ways that do not affect the quality of provider-client interactions Sutton A second consequence of the premium placed on the ex- penditure of emotional energy in extended encounters is that service provider self-identity and role congruence become especially important to the success of extended encounters.
Although it may be possible to initiate service scripts at odds with provider self-concepts for brief interactions, it is more problematic for managers to ask providers or clients to perform roles which may well be discrepant from their self-identities for long intervals Hochschild ; Van Maanen and Kunda Third, significant opportunities for service script inter- ference emerge during extended encounters.
Service roles are interdependent, hence mutual understanding and service satisfaction are likely to be greater when both customers and employees hold similar scripts i.
Enactment of shared scripts is impeded by script interference, which occurs because of ob- stacles and errors Shank and Abelson All else being equal, as encounter duration increases, opportunities for script interference from uncontrollable, and sometimes un- predictable, environmental intra- and interpersonal causes increase. Script interference reduces the likelihood of con- gruence between customers' and employees' scripts. Non- congruence between patient and doctor scripts, for example, is an important problem during prolonged labor and deliv- ery.
The resultant perceived lack of mutual understanding becomes an important source of patient dissatisfaction with birthing services Graham and Oakley But when en- counters become long and outcomes less predictable, ser- vice providers must do more. They must orchestrate mutual understanding to produce service satisfaction.
By orches- trating mutual understanding, we mean the service provider must oversee the emergence of shared customer-provider scripts. Providers must interpret service episodes, explain 2The opportunities for script interference—errors in and obsta- cles to service delivery—in this context are almost endless. For ex- ample, the practice's scheduling may mean that a doctor unknown to the patient attends the birth.
Many physical contingencies can interfere with the birth plan, resulting in the presence of unknown personnel, the introduction of unplanned and unwanted medical procedures, or an unexpected hospital stay. Support personnel vary in terms of the degree of control they seek to impose on patients, amount of information they are willing to share, and emotion work in which they engage. And patients and their coaches can hardly anticipate how they will respond even if they have been through labor and delivery before.
Ser- vice providers' scripts in temporally extended encounters are likely to be much more elaborate than customers'. Providers cannot share all the details with every customer; some parts may be understood to be unpredictable. In ex- tended encounters, ongoing communication and nurturing of mutual understanding regarding service outcomes be- comes especially important.
Affective Content Most previous research in services marketing ignores the emotional content of service delivery. By "affective con- tent," we refer to emotional arousal associated with the en- counter. Most previous services marketing research focuses on the provision not only of predominately functional bene- fits Czepiel, Solomon, and Surprenant ; Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and Berry , but also low-affect contexts such as bank transactions, making airline reservations, or hotel check-ins.
We distinguish two service encounter contexts likely to have high affective content. In the first type, the consumer is motivated by the ex- pected functional benefits of service encounters, but emo- tional content is nonetheless an important part of interaction and service satisfaction.
In this case, emotions may be part of the encounter because of psychological reactance e. In the second type, the consumer is motivated by the affective benefits offered by the service. Examples include services valued for their multisensory, emotive content or narrative and ritualistic meanings, such as multi-day white water river rafting, art lessons and artistic performances, martial arts training, en- counter groups, health spas, funeral services, and adventure recreations Arnould and Price ; Donohue ; Hirschman and Holbrook Table 1 summarizes three exploratory characteristics as- sociated with service encounters with high affective content.
We anticipate that all else being equal low-affect service encounters would be less likely to exhibit these characteris- tics than high-affect encounters. First, we propose that af- fective content contributes to the development of boundary open relationships between service providers and cus- tomers. Emotional content motivates self-revelation, con- tributing to intimacy and the development of boundary open relationships Mars and Nicod ; Siehl, Bowen, and Pearson Second, affective content requires sustained emotional labor likely to lead to emotional dissonance, role stress, and role conflict.
To deal with the customer's emotional intensi- ty regularly requires that the service provider expend signif- icant imagistic-emotional energy Hirschman and Holbrook ; Hochschild Encounters that are routine for the service provider are often exceptional or even extraordinary for the customer.
This creates asymmetry in feelings and ex- pectations, as the following example from medical services illustrates Todd , p. An important factor in the doctor-patient relationship is that patients are usually sick and doctors are usually healthy.
Illness is always anxiety-provoking and emotion- ally difficult. The patient is a stranger in a strange land, where only a small minority understand the gadgets, pro- cedures, and options; for doctors the territory is familiar. A disparity between the emotional state of the customer and the service provider places a premium on the emotion work of the service provider, as in service encounters relat- ed to death Gentry et al.
To provide authentic emo- tional outcomes, the provider may attempt to displace or "backstage" commercial intentions, because "synthetic compassion can be more offensive than none at all" Thompson , p. Provider emotions must be per- ceived by the consumer as authentic Ashforth and Humphrey ; Hochschild ; Rafaeli and Sutton ; Romm —spontaneous responses to environ- ment, activities, and social interaction Abrahams — rather than directed process.
As noted previously, emotional performances, especial- ly if they are at odds with self-identity, can lead to role stress, role conflict, and burnout Singh, Goolsby, and Rhoades The masking or reworking of authentic emotions to make them conform to emotion norms has been linked to psychological and physical dysfunctions, as well as to overall stress and job dissatisfaction King and Em- mons ; Parkinson ; Rutter and Fielding Thus, emotional dissonance, role stress, and role conflict that arise in affectively charged service encounters pose se- rious managerial challenges.
The third characteristic is that in delivering affective ser- vices content, service providers both orchestrate the en- counter to define customized service benefits and deliver them. In service encounters with high affective content, the provider, like an artistic performer, is an important conduit of benefits contributing to service satisfaction Holbrook Service providers convey the affective content of events through their own engagement, emotions, sense of drama, and skills Deighton ; Grove and Fisk Competence and efficiency still will be expected of service providers, but emotional labor and the engineering of emo- tion will have expanded roles Arnould and Price The virtual impossibility of standardizing the delivery of emotional content poses special burdens for service providers.
In emotionally charged encounters, customers want recognition of the uniqueness of their personal experi- ence. They want providers to interact with them on the basis of their emotional state, rather than according to a standard- ized script. For example, grieving relatives do not want to be told, "I know just how you feel," or to compare their loss to others' losses Gentry et al.
Because customers often see their emotional state as unique, each expects to be treat- ed by the provider in what they perceive to be a unique way. Proxemics Most previous research has ignored the proxemic dimension of contact between service provider and customer, although proxemic relationships vary markedly for an exception, see, Goodwin and Frame Service providers and cus- tomers may be remote, as in telephone contacts, or they may be separated by desks or counters, as in retail settings.
Other encounters may be quite intimate, as in therapeutic massage. The omission of the proxemic dimension in the services marketing literature is significant because research demon- strates that proxemics has a strong impact on perceptions of interpersonal encounters Hall ; Willis and Hamm Table 1 summarizes two exploratory characteristics as- sociated with intimate service encounters.
Intimate service encounters are more likely to ex- hibit these characteristics than encounters in social or public space, or outside 36 inches Hall First, we posit that intimate proxemics heighten involvement and feelings of at- tachment, and interactions are more likely to develop into boundary open transactions. Spatial proximity produces feelings of attachment and personal involvement while fa- cilitating perceptions of service providers' trustworthiness and warmth Mehrabian Moreover, intimate nonver- bal signals, especially touching, are perceived as more gen- uine Hornik One study found that legal counselors who touched clients were liked better and were viewed as more empathic Pattison Intimacy, feelings of attach- ment, personal involvement, and empathy contribute to the development of boundary open relationships Mars and Nicod ; Siehl, Bowen, and Pearson This point also follows from research findings on nonverbal communi- cation.
Close proxemics heighten positive feelings and mood and increase attentional arousal, subsequently affect- ing overall evaluation of associated stimuli Patterson, Pow- ell, and Lenihan Moreover, research suggests that spatial proximity positively influences evaluations of en- counters Hornik Implications lor the EAI Service Provider Role To summarize, we anticipate that EAI encounters demand a service provider role that incorporates empathic sharing, communication of caring, evolving intimacy, and exchange more characteristic of friendship than commercial service provision.
Service providers engage in substantial emotion work, work that must appear authentic. Successful service providers expend sustained emotional energy to orchestrate service encounter goals while still delivering functional out- comes. Providers must orchestrate service encounter goals and manage script interference that constrains mutual un- derstanding and threatens satisfaction.
Because customer expectations must be both crystallized and delivered in EAI encounters, service provider performance is critical to affec- tive response and service satisfaction. The emotion work re- quired in each EAI encounter can lead to emotional fatigue 3Of course, as one reviewer points out, some people in some en- counters will reject proxemic intimacy because they find it inap- propriate or unattractive, and providers must be responsive to cus- tomer cues.
Failing to provide a level of intimacy keyed to the na- ture, duration, and affective content of the encounter can produce negative evaluations of the service encounter. Role conflict can arise from negotiating boundaries between transactional and relational exchanges.
Description of Research Activity We now describe an exploratory field study of service provider-customer relationships on commercial, multi-day river rafting trips in the Colorado River Basin.
Findings are based on a two-year, multi-method study of commercial rafting that incorporates data reflecting outfitter manage- ment , guide service provider , and customer perspectives Arnould and Price In Figure 2, we posit that service provider performance characteristics and the relationship between these character- istics and customer responses vary with the duration, affec- tive content, and proxemic intimacy of the service en- counter. The approach taken here controls service encounter dimensions and explores service provider performance char- acteristics and customer responses, consistent with the in- fluential recommendations of Glaser and Strauss for the development of grounded theory.
Multi-day commercial river rafting trips are extended in time, have high affective content, and take place in personal and intimate proxemic space—in other words, an EAI encounter Arnould and Price We employed an emergent research design fully detailed in Arnould and Price Emergent design is the stan- dard in ethnography, in which succeeding methodological steps are based on the results of steps already taken and imply the presence of a continuously interacting and inter- preting investigator Arnould and Wallendorf We used case-based descriptive data focused on the meanings of the service encounter to extend conventional measures of customers' perceptions of service provider performance and reported customer satisfaction appropriate for EAI encoun- ters.
Therefore, we did not begin with existing measures or a priori conceptualizations of service provider performance Brown and Swartz ; Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and Berry ; instead, it was our goal to trace the evolution of one particular shared service encounter script.
As detailed in Arnould and Price , we used a vari- ety of data-gathering procedures to incorporate multiple per- spectives and sample across the temporal frame of the en- counter. To understand the temporal moments of the en- counter, data were gathered repeatedly from outfitters and guides. For the same reason, data were gathered from cus- tomers before, during, immediately after, and well after their river trips.
Dates of data collection are noted in the text, along with the data collection technique and general type of sample. For more complete descriptions of the samples and techniques, the reader is referred to Arnould and Price Data collection proceeded according to well-estab- lished guidelines for each of the three data gathering tech- niques: systematic interviewing, participant observation, and survey research Denzin and Lincoln ; Dillman ; Fowler ; McCracken Mulheres de Cabul download pdf.
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